زیگموند فروید (Sigmund Freud) پایه گذار علم روانشناسی نوین زاده شهر پریبور در جمهوری چک کنونی و امپراتوری اتریش پیشین (۷ می ۱۸۵۶ - ۲۳ سپتامبر ۱۹۳۹)، در ابتدا یک متخصص اعصاب بود. وی مدرسه روانکاوی را بر مبنای نظریاتش بنیان گذاشت، که بسیاری از رفتارهای انسان تحت تأثیر انگیزه‌های ضمیر ناخودآگاه است؛ که افکار و خاطرات بخصوص ضمیر ناخودآگاه، بویژه از نوع جنسی و پرخاشگرانه، ریشه اختلالات روانی هستند، و اینگونه اختلالات روانی می‌توانند با تبدیل افکار و خاطرات ناخودآگاه به آگاهی از طریق معالجات روانکاوانه، درمان شوند. برخی از کتابهای وی به فارسی ترجمه شده‌اند. از جمله آن‌ها میتوان به کتاب تمدن و گله‌مندان از آن اشاره کرد که تحت عنوان "فرهنگ و ناخوشایندیهای آن" توسط امید مهرگان از آلمانی به فارسی برگردانده شده است.
وی به همراه آلبرت انیشتین، مارتین بوبر و حاییم وایزمن از موسسان و اعضای اولین هیئت علمی دانشگاه عبری اورشلیم بود.[۱]
وی یک یهودی اشکنازی بود. با روی کار آمدن نازی‌ها وی در ۱۹۳۸ اتریش را ترک کرد و به اسرائیل رفت. وی پس از مدتی به انگلستان عزیمت کرد و در همانجا به دلیل ابتلا به سرطان فک درگذشت.
english translation :
Sigmund Freud (IPA: [ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt]), born Sigismund Schlomo Freud (May 6, 1856 – September 23, 1939), was an Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist who founded the psychoanalytic school of psychology. Freud is best known for his theories of the unconscious mind and the defense mechanism of repression. He is also renowned for his redefinition of sexual desire as the primary motivational energy of human life which is directed toward a wide variety of objects; as well as his therapeutic techniques, including his theory of transference in the therapeutic relationship and the presumed value of dreams as sources of insight into unconscious desires.
Freud is commonly referred to as "the father of psychoanalysis" and his work has been highly influential — popularizing such notions as the unconscious, the Oedipus complex, defense mechanisms, Freudian slips and dream symbolism — while also making a long-lasting impact on fields as diverse as literature, film, Marxist and feminist theories, and psychology. However, his body of work is disputed by numerous critics, such as author Richard Webster, who characterizes Freud's work as a "complex pseudo-science,"[1] and A. C. Grayling who noted, " ...as to Freud's claims upon truth, the judgment of time
Freud's theories and research methods were controversial during his life and still are so today, but few dispute his huge impact on psychologists and the academically inclined.
Most importantly, Freud popularized the "talking-cure"—an idea that a person could solve problems simply by talking over them, something that was almost unheard of in the 19th century. Even though many psychotherapists today tend to reject the specifics of Freud's theories, this basic mode of treatment comes largely from his work.
Most of Freud's specific theories—like his stages of psychosexual development—and especially his methodology, have fallen out of favor in modern experimental psychology.
Some psychotherapists, however, still follow an approximately Freudian system of treatment. Many more have modified his approach, or joined one of the schools that branched from his original theories (see Neo-Freudian). Still others reject his theories entirely, although their practice may still reflect his influence.
Psychoanalysis today maintains the same ambivalent relationship with medicine and academia that Freud experienced during his life.
[edit] Philosophy
While he saw himself as a scientist, Freud greatly admired Theodor Lipps, a philosopher and main supporter of the ideas of the subconscious and empathy.[18] Freud's theories have had a tremendous impact on the humanities--especially on the Frankfurt school and critical theory. Freud had an incisive influence on French philosophers like Derrida and Lyotard following the "return to Freud"" of the French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan. Freud's model of the mind is often criticized as an unsubstantiated challenge to the enlightenment model of rational agency, which was a key element of much modern philosophy.
Rationality
While many enlightenment thinkers viewed rationality as both an unproblematic ideal and a defining feature of man[citation needed], Freud's model of the mind drastically reduced the scope and power of reason. In Freud's view, reasoning occurs in the conscious mind--the ego--but this is only a small part of the whole. The mind also contains the hidden, irrational elements of id and superego, which lie outside of conscious control, drive behavior, and motivate conscious activities. As a result, these structures call into question humans' ability to act purely on the basis of reason, since lurking motives are also always at play. Moreover, this model of the mind makes rationality itself suspect, since it may be motivated by hidden urges or societal forces (e.g. defense mechanisms, where reasoning becomes "rationalizing").
Transparency of Self
Freud challenged the idea of empiricists such as John Locke and David Hume that the workings of the mind can be understood by introspection. He considered many central aspects of a person remain radically inaccessible to the conscious mind (without the aid of psychotherapy).
[edit] Critical reactions
Although Freud's theories were influential, they came under widespread criticism during his lifetime and afterward. A paper by Lydiard H. Horton, read in 1915 at a joint meeting of the American Psychological Association and the New York Academy of Sciences, called Freud's dream theory "dangerously inaccurate" and noted that "rank confabulations...appear to hold water, psychoanalytically" [19]. The philosopher A. C. Grayling has said that "Philosophies that capture the imagination never wholly fade....But as to Freud's claims upon truth, the judgment of time seems to be running against him."[20] Peter D. Kramer, a psychiatrist and faculty member of Brown Medical School, said "I'm afraid [Freud] doesn't hold up very well at all. It almost feels like a personal betrayal to say that. But every particular is wrong: the universality of the Oedipus complex, penis envy, infantile sexuality." A 2006 article in Newsweek magazine called him "history's most debunked doctor."[21]
Freud's theories are often criticized for not being real science.[22] This objection was raised by Karl Popper, who claimed that all proper scientific theories must be potentially falsifiable. Popper argued that no experiment or observation could ever falsify Freud's theories of psychology (e.g. someone who denies having an Oedipal complex is interpreted as repressing it), and thus they could not be considered scientific.[23]
H. J. Eysenck claims that Freud 'set psychiatry back one hundred years', consistently mis-diagnosed his patients, fraudulently misrepresented case histories and that "what is true in Freud is not new and what is new in Freud is not true".[24]
Mikkel Borch-Jacobsen claims that "The truth is that Freud knew from the very start that Fleischl, Anna O. and his 18 patients were not cured, and yet he did not hesitate to build grand theories on these non-existent foundations...he disguised fragments of his self-analysis as ‘objective’ cases, that he concealed his sources, that he conveniently antedated some of his analyses, that he sometimes attributed to his patients ‘free associations’ that he himself made up, that he inflated his therapeutic successes, that he slandered his opponents."[2]
Among adherents of Freudian thought, a frequently criticized aspect of Freud's belief system is his model of psychosexual development, including Freud's claim that infants are sexual beings.[citation needed] Others have accepted Freud's expanded notion of sexuality, but have argued that this pattern of development is not universal, nor necessary for the development of a healthy adult.[citation needed] Instead, they have emphasized the social and environmental sources of patterns of development. Moreover, they call attention to social dynamics Freud de-emphasized or ignored, such as class relations. This branch of Freudian critique owes a great deal to the work of Herbert Marcuse.
Freud has also come under fire from many feminist critics.[citation needed] Although Freud was an early champion of both sexual freedom and education for women (Freud, "Civilized Sexual Morality and Modern Nervousness"), some feminists have argued that at worst his views of women's sexual development set the progress of women in Western culture back decades, and that at best they lent themselves to the ideology of female inferiority[citation needed]. Believing as he did that women are a kind of mutilated male, who must learn to accept their "deformity" (the "lack" of a penis) and submit to some imagined biological imperative, he contributed to the vocabulary of misogyny[citation needed]. Terms such as "penis envy" and "castration anxiety" contributed to discouraging women from entering any field dominated by men, until the 1970s[citation needed]. Some of Freud's most criticized[citation needed] statements appear in his 'Fragment of Analysis' on Ida Bauer such as "This was surely just the situation to call up distinct feelings of sexual excitement in a girl of fourteen" in reference to Dora being kissed by a 'young man of prepossessing appearance'[25] implying the passivity of female sexuality and his statement "I should without question consider a person hysterical in whom an occasion for sexual excitement elicited feelings that were preponderantly or exclusively unpleasurable"[25][citation needed]
On the other hand, feminist theorists such as Juliet Mitchell, Nancy Chodorow, Jessica Benjamin, Jane Gallop, and Jane Flax have argued, that psychoanalytic theory, is essentially related to the feminist project and must, like other theoretical traditions, be adapted by women to free it from vestiges of sexism[citation needed]. Major French feminists psychoanalysts like Luce Irigaray, Julia Kristeva and Bracha L. Ettinger elaborate Freudian theory and insights in order both to devellope them and to criticize them, arriving, in the case of Irigaray and Ettinger into new propositions regarding the feminine. Freud's views are still being questioned by people concerned about women's equality[citation needed]. Another feminist who finds potential use of Freud's theories in the feminist movement is Shulamith Firestone. In "Freudianism: The Misguided Feminism", she discusses how Freudianism is essentially completely accurate, with the exception of one crucial detail: everywhere that Freud wrote "penis", the word should be replaced with "power".
Dr. Jurgen von Scheidt speculated that most of Freud's psychoanalytical theory was a byproduct of his cocaine use.[26] Cocaine enhances dopaminergic neurotransmission increasing sexual interest and obsessive thinking. Chronic cocaine use can produce unusual thinking patterns due to the depletion of dopamine levels in the prefrontal cortex.
